Council on Energy, Environment and Water Integrated | International | Independent
Suggested citation: Rajakumaran, Hashvitha, Karan Kothadiya, and Deepak Yadav. 2026. Can White Hydrogen Accelerate India’s Energy Transition? Assessing Potential and Pathways. New Delhi: Council on Energy, Environment and Water.
This issue brief assesses the relevance of white hydrogen for India by examining its formation mechanisms, global developments, India’s geological potential, and the policy and institutional actions required to evaluate the resource. White hydrogen, also known as geological or natural hydrogen, has emerged as a possible complement to green hydrogen. It is molecular hydrogen generated by natural geological processes and extracted directly from subsurface formations, without electricity-intensive electrolysis or emission-intensive fossil-fuel conversion. Because these geological processes generate it continuously, it is treated as a renewable resource. The report finds that the priority in the initial phase is structured learning rather than deployment, and sets out a sequenced set of actions across policy, geological surveying, research and development, and international cooperation.
White hydrogen, also known as geological or natural hydrogen, is emerging globally as a potential low-emission, low-cost hydrogen source. Unlike conventional hydrogen pathways, white hydrogen is produced by natural geological processes and can be extracted directly from subsurface formations without electricity-intensive electrolysis or emission-intensive fossil-fuel conversion.
Global hydrogen demand reached 97 million tonnes (Mt) in 2023 and is projected to quadruple by 2050, reaching 388 Mt (IEA 2023b), driven largely by decarbonisation targets. As countries seek to scale low-emission hydrogen supply, interest in white hydrogen has grown as a possible complement to green hydrogen.
In this report, we assess the relevance of white hydrogen for India by examining its formation mechanisms, global developments, India’s geological potential, and the policy and institutional actions required to evaluate and advance this resource.
White hydrogen refers to molecular hydrogen that accumulates underground in subsurface environments under suitable conditions. Since it is continuously generated through various geological processes, it is considered a renewable energy resource (Mao et al. 2025). White hydrogen generation occurs through five principal mechanisms: serpentinisation of ultrabasic rocks and oxidoreduction of iron-rich sedimentary rocks, both involving mineral-water reactions that release hydrogen. Additionally, late maturation of organic matter in coal and shale; radiolysis driven by radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium; and degassing from deep mantle sources also generate white hydrogen (Bendall 2022). These mechanisms are discussed in detail in Section 2.
These mechanisms allow hydrogen to exist in several forms, including as free gas trapped in reservoirs, dissolved gas in groundwater, and within mineral inclusions. Among these, free gas accumulations and hydrogen dissolved in groundwater are currently considered more viable for extraction. However, hydrogen’s high diffusivity and our limited understanding of reservoir stability pose challenges for reliable resource estimation and recovery. Ongoing global research and development initiatives are therefore aimed at overcoming these challenges, while also exploring the possibility of artificially triggering white hydrogen generation in geological formations through electrical stimulation or the injection of reactive fluids into geological formations.
We find that white hydrogen offers several potential advantages aligned with India’s sustainability and energy transition objectives. Environmentally, it has a low carbon intensity, minimal water and land requirements, and significantly lower energy input compared with electrolytic hydrogen (Table ES1).
Table ES1. White hydrogen is cleaner, cheaper, and more resource-efficient than alternative production methods
From an economic perspective, early global evidence suggests that white hydrogen could be produced at a lower cost than green hydrogen and potentially be competitive with fossil-based hydrogen, while offering more stable long-term pricing. The only commercially operational project to date, in Mali, produces white hydrogen at approximately USD 0.5 per kg H2 (Rystad Energy 2024), although the current production scale is small at around 0.5 tonnes per day. Other companies and research institutions estimate production costs at USD 0.5–3.1 per kg H2, depending on production stability and project lifetimes (Musa et al. 2024; Mathur et al. 2025). In addition, the potential to co-extract valuable gases, such as helium, could further improve project economics.
White hydrogen could therefore diversify India’s hydrogen supply and reduce its dependence on imported fossil fuels and critical minerals required for electrolysers. These benefits, however, remain contingent on the scale, continuity, and extractability of domestic reserves, which have yet to be established.
Globally, white hydrogen has moved beyond being a purely academic concept. We find that more than 15 countries, through several public-sector entities, government institutions, and private companies, are now actively engaged in research, exploration, and early-stage drilling. At present, Mali remains the only country with an operational white hydrogen well supplying low-cost electricity locally. However, interest in white hydrogen has grown steadily since 2012, with multiple countries advancing exploration and research initiatives (Figure ES1). In comparison, India remains at an early stage in developing its approach to white hydrogen.
Figure ES1. Global public and private interest in white hydrogen is growing, with exploration and extraction activities advancing
Source: Authors’ analysis
Note: USGS – United States Geological Survey; NREL – National Renewable Energy Laboratory; CNRS – French
National Centre for Scientific Research (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique); CSIRO – The Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation.
Entities marked in grey boxes are public-sector entities. Others are private-sector entities.
Governments in countries such as the United States (US), Australia, France, and Spain have introduced funding programmes, adapted regulatory frameworks, and issued exploration permits to support early development. For example, the US Department of Energy (US DOE) allocated USD 20 million in 2024 under the Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy programme to fund early-stage research on geological hydrogen production and subsurface reservoir management (US DOE 2024). Similarly, Australia has committed public funding to support the exploration of white hydrogen, including a dedicated allocation for activities in Queensland (Queensland Government 2024).
Public research institutions, including geological surveys and national laboratories, are leading efforts in hydrogen prospectivity mapping, soil gas surveys, and subsurface research. These institutions include the USGS and the NREL in the US, the CNRS in France, the Geological Survey of Finland, and the Korea National Oil Corporation (KNOC), among others. These initiatives have produced early, country-wide hydrogen prospectivity maps and are working to improve understanding of hydrogen generation and migration processes. At the same time, private companies are deploying advanced geophysical tools, drilling exploratory wells, and testing monitoring technologies across North America, Europe, Africa, and Australia.
Private-sector activity in white hydrogen spans the full value chain, from early-stage exploration to operational production, with companies operating across North America, Europe, Africa, and Australia.
India possesses several geological markers associated with white hydrogen generation, including ultramafic rock complexes, cratonic regions, iron ore belts, uranium- and thorium-rich formations, fault zones, and volcanic provinces such as the Deccan Traps (Figure ES2). These markers are distributed across peninsular, central, and southern India. Preliminary evidence, including hydrogen detected in the Andaman ophiolites and geothermal regions, is encouraging. However, it remains insufficient to assess the resource size or its commercial viability.
Figure ES2. India has geological markers for white hydrogen
Source: Authors' analysis
Note: Basalt formations and iron ore mines are mapped using shapefiles; other mineral deposits are shown only as an indicative location due to data unavailability.
Several constraints may limit near-term deployment in India. These include limited geological data, low technological readiness, lack of policy recognition, and uncertainty regarding reserve size and production stability.
To address these gaps, we present the following areas for concerted actions by various stakeholders to advance white hydrogen explorations and development in India.
This CEEW issue brief assesses white hydrogen, also called natural or geological hydrogen, which forms through geological processes and is extracted directly from the subsurface. It finds early evidence of low cost, at USD 0.5 to 3.1 per kg, low carbon intensity, more than 15 countries exploring, and unquantified geological markers across India. It recommends a national thesis, geological screening, targeted research, and international cooperation.
White hydrogen is molecular hydrogen that forms underground through natural geological processes and accumulates in subsurface formations, from where it can be extracted directly. Green hydrogen is manufactured by splitting water using renewable electricity in an electrolyser. The practical difference is the input: white hydrogen requires no electrolyser, no renewable generation, and almost no water, so its energy and material requirements are far lower. It is also known as natural or geological hydrogen.
Unlike fossil fuels, which exist as a finite stock, white hydrogen is generated continuously by geological processes. Five mechanisms account for most of it: serpentinisation of ultrabasic rocks and oxidoreduction of iron-rich sedimentary rocks, both of which release hydrogen through mineral-water reactions; late maturation of organic matter in coal and shale; radiolysis driven by the decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium; and degassing from the deep mantle. Colombia has already recognised it as a renewable energy source.
India has the geological conditions associated with it, and one confirmed detection. The Geological Survey of India reported natural hydrogen from the South Andaman ophiolite complex in April 2025, and a separate study indicates hydrogen potential in the hot springs of Uttarakhand. Beyond these, preliminary screening identifies source rocks, migration pathways, and trapping environments across peninsular, central, and southern India. No large-scale study has yet assessed or estimated Indian reserves, so the resource size is unknown.
Reported and estimated costs range from USD 0.5 to 3.1 per kg of hydrogen, against USD 3.5 to 5 per kg for green hydrogen. The lower end comes from the only commercially operational project, in Mali, and from a Stanford University analysis for the United States; a CSIRO Energy case study in Australia estimates USD 1.99 to 3.13 per kg. These are early figures drawn from small or prospective operations, and large-scale production costs remain uncertain. Co-extracting helium could improve project economics.
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