Council on Energy, Environment and Water Integrated | International | Independent
Agroforestry describes traditional and modern land-use systems where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, bamboos, palms, etc.) are integrated on purpose on the same land as crops and/or animals in various spatial or temporal arrangements. According to the World Agroforestry Centre, agroforestry is the practice and science of the interactions between agriculture and forestry that involve farmers, trees (woody perennials), forests, and livestock at multiple scales. The systems integrate trees and shrubs on farms and rural spaces to enhance the productivity, profitability, diversity, and sustainability of ecosystems.1,2
It is argued to be a low-cost system that demands fewer inputs, but that has several advantages, including a diversity of products and services such as fodder, timber, firewood, crops, fruit, and improvement in soil fertility.3
In principle, Agroforestry adheres to and promotes most of the agroecological elements as defined by the FAO
| ELEMENTS | DESCRIPTION |
|---|---|
| Diversity | Agroforestry leads to increased diversity of crops and livestock with trees that promote and conserve biodiversity in the agroecosystems. |
| Co-creation and sharing of knowledge | Local agroforestry knowledge has accumulated over the years in the country, mainly known for its ethnoforestry practices and indigenous knowledge systems for growing diverse tree species. In recent years, efforts are directed towards mobilizing scientific knowledge on agroforestry systems. |
| Synergies | Land-use practices that involve trees, crop, and livestock combinations are synergistic, in terms of resource-use efficiency; nutrient cycling and also by their ability to synergize climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. This occurs through carbon sequestration and helping farmers to cope with climate risks. |
| Efficiency | Agroforestry can lead to more closed nutrient cycling than other agricultural systems, thus making efficient use of nutrients. These systems also use solar energy more efficiently than monocultural systems." |
| Recycling | Agroforestry can recover, recycle, and use nutrients efficiently, primarily when nitrogen-fixing trees or symbiotic fixers are used. |
| Resilience | As agroforestry allows farmers to diversify their production and income, improving biodiversity and ecosystem health in the process, this integrated cultivation method makes them more resilient socio-economically and in the face of climate change. |
| Human and social values | Agroforestry has been firmly rooted in human and social values for centuries for its ecological, social, and economic functions. Women find it enticing as it offers a nearby food source, fuelwood, and fodder, reducing the need to walk a long distance and supplementing their livelihoods. |
| Culture and food traditions | Agroforestry leads to increased diversity of crops and livestock with trees that promote and conserve biodiversity in the agroecosystems. |
Agroforestry is a traditional practice in India. It is a sought-after land-use system due to its contribution to livelihoods, nutrition, energy, and environmental security. Trees outside forests increase the country's tree cover and enhance ecosystem services; it also meets the bulk of the country's demand for wood. At present, agroforestry meets almost half of fuelwood needs for the country, around two-thirds of small timber, 70-80 percent of plywood, 60 percent of the raw material for paper pulp, and 9-11 percent of the green fodder requirement of livestock, as well as meeting subsistence needs of households for food, fruit, fiber, medicine, etc.6 The sector finds increasing relevance in states where wood-based industries are essential.
Agroforestry was included in agricultural and forestry research agendas when ICAR launched an All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Agroforestry with 20 centers in 1983. Currently, there are 37 AICRP on agroforestry' representing all the agro-climates in the country.7Agroforestry gained momentum after adopting the National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) in 2014, which aimed to organize the sector and reform any legislative barriers.8 Experts perceive the NAP 2014 policy shifted opinions towards agroforestry, which was viewed as part of agriculture, unlike earlier when it was considered part of the forestry sector.9
In addition to the agroforestry policy, other government initiatives emphasize the role of agroforestry. ‘These include the National Forest Policy 1988, the National Agriculture Policy 2000, the Planning Commission Task Force on Greening India (PCTFGI) 2001, the National Bamboo Mission 2002, the National Policy on Farmers 2007, and the Green India Mission 2010.10 In the Nationally Determined Contributions submitted to the UNFCCC, India aims to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2eq. Importantly, agroforestry is one of the strategies envisaged to achieve this goal by increasing tree cover.11
Twenty common agroforestry systems are practised across India12,13
1. Agrisilviculture: This is the most prominent agroforestry system in India, practiced in seven agroclimatic regions. These are production techniques that combine the growing of crops with simultaneously raised and protected tree crops.
2. Agri-horticulture: Practised in six agro-climatic regions; it combines fruit trees with crops.
3. Agri-silvi-horticulture: Practised in two agro-climatic regions; it combines trees, fruit trees, and crops.
4. Agri-silvi-pasture: Practised in two agroclimatic regions. This is a collective name for land-use systems, involving the deliberate association of a woody component (trees or shrubs) with cattle on the same land unit.
5. Boundary plantation: Where trees are planted at a vast distance around agricultural fields.
6. Block plantation: Practised in the Eastern plateau and hills and Central plateau and hills, tree plantations with closed spacing in compact blocks of more than 0.1 hectare on lands outside recorded forest areas.
7. Energy plantation: Practised in the lower Gangetic plains; in this system, trees with crops are grown in the initial phase.
8. Alley cropping: An agroforestry intercropping system in which species of shrubs or trees are planted at relatively close spacings within rows, and widely spaced between rows, to leave room for herbaceous cropping in the alleys in between.
9. Silvi-olericulture: A combination of trees and vegetables.
10. Horti-pasture: This system combines fruit trees with pasture or animals.
11. Horti-olericulture: Combines fruit trees and vegetables.
12. Silvi-pasture: An agroforestry practice that integrates livestock, forage production, and trees on the same land management unit.
13. Forage forestry: Combines forage trees and pasture.
14. Shelter-belts: Practised in the East Coast plateau and hills and Western dry regions; combines trees and crops.
15. Wind-breaks: Combine trees and crops.
16. Live fence: Where shrubs and undertrees form the boundary.
17. Silvi or Horti-sericulture: Trees or fruit trees and sericulture.
18. Horti-apiculture: Fruit trees with honeybees.
19. Aqua-forestry: Trees combined with fisheries.
20. Homestead: Multiple combinations of trees, fruit trees, vegetables, etc. ‘There are also specialized systems such as Jhum (shifting cultivation) in Eastern Himalaya and home gardens in East coast plateau and hills, West coast plains and ghats, and Islands.
Figure 1. Statewise area coverage of agroforestry
Source: Newaj et al 2017
How much area in India is under agroforestry? Based on GIS and remote-sensing techniques, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research-Central Agroforestry Research Institute estimates agroforestry to cover about 25 million hectares in the 15 agroclimatic zones of the country (Stakeholders consulted at the Indian Council of Agricultural Research- Central Arid Zone Research Institute) (ICAR-CAFRI: hetp://cafri.res.in/).
At what farm size is agroforestry practiced? Small and marginal farmers carry out the practice in rainfed conditions and large farmers under irrigated conditions as the practice is suited to both. However, it is popular among large and wealthy farmers with large enough landholdings to diversify income and experiment with crops, while smallholder farmers find it more challenging to adopt.14
How many farmers in India are practicing agroforestry? A rough estimate by stakeholders consulted suggests the number of farmers adopting the practice is less than 5 million.
Where in India is agroforestry prevalent? Agroforestry is undertaken throughout the country in all climatic regions (Figure 1). States like Uttar Pradesh (1.9 million hectares), Maharashtra (1.6 million hectares), and Rajasthan (1.6 million hectares) lead the coverage in terms of area.15 However, the area under agroforestry relative to the net sown area of the state is highest among Jharkhand (21 percent), Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (19 percent) and Bihar (14 percent).
Which are the major crops cultivated under agroforestry in India? Stakeholders consulted in CAFRI indicate that any crop can be grown under agroforestry, but shade-loving crops perform better once the shade increases. Poplars, Eucalyptus, Dalbergia, Neem, Acacia, Melia, Tectona, Ailanthus, Gmelina, Bamboo, Leucaena, Casuarina, and Mangium hybrid are some popular trees integrated under agroforestry.
This section considers the economic, social, and environmental impacts of agroforestry.
ECONOMIC IMPACT
‘Though the discussions on yield in agroforestry have always remained contentious and highly contextual, there have been some efforts to clarify the matter by institutes like the CAFRI and the South Asia Regional Programme of World Agroforestry (ICRAF). One extensive study surveys 20 different agroforestry models for the following six agro-ecological regions (AERs) in India: arid, semi-arid, sub-humid, humid-perhumid, coastal, and island ecosystems. It suggests that several agroforestry systems (Table 1) have positive and statistically significant yield growth of fruits, timber, and crops.16
The selection of tree species is essential in agroforestry; for instance, the canopy of a tree cannot be too large to affect crop yields. Thus, any competition between tree and crop is possibly reduced through suitable canopy management practices. Furthermore, it is essential to note that with time, as the tree grows, its ability to consume more nutrients and water also increases; hence, these systems may eventually reduce crop yields, posing a trade-off.
A comprehensive study on the economics of agroforestry proves its viability, finding an internal rate of return ranging from 25 to 68; and a B:C ratio of 1.01 to 4.17 for 24 agroforestry systems from different AERs of the country.17 For more clarity, the income and net returns of a few of the agroforestry systems followed in different ecosystems with varying crop combinations are discussed in Table 1. These indicate that incorporating trees and shrubs with crops proves can be profitable. This is due to the additional income reaped from diversified livelihood sources — in addition to crop income; there is also income from timber, fuelwood, and fodder. Among crops, especially vegetables yield higher returns on an average than the standard field crops.18
Agroforestry improves the productivity, income, employment, and livelihood opportunities of rural households, especially smallholder farmers. For farmers, additional income other than crops that serve as a quick source of cash is a primary reason for adopting agroforestry in Uttar Pradesh and the Bundelkhand region.19 In Punjab and Haryana, large landholders are planting poplar and eucalyptus on their estate for economic gains. In contrast, small and marginal farmers mainly depend on agroforestry for sustenance - livelihood, food, and fodder requirements (ICAR-CAFRI, stakeholder consultation).
Agroforestry also acts as insurance against extreme climatic events that may cause crop failures. There is assured income from the trees (timber, fruit, etc.), which are not as adversely affected as other practices.
SOCIAL IMPACT
Limited papers were found on the impact of agroforestry on human health. Most refer to food and nutritional security enhancement.20,21 For example, agri-horticulture farms that mostly grow fruit crops (pomegranate, mango, cashew, jackfruit, etc.) improve families’ nutrition and health status.22
Apart from the nutritional benefits, the ways agroforestry affects human health are rarely articulated in depth, at least in the Indian context. More effort is required to reduce this information gap.
Although there is substantial literature on women’s participation in promoting agroforestry, there is almost no scholarly study on how the practice affects women. One such study shows that agroforestry offers varied opportunities, including financial stability due to increased access to high-value crops (e.g., fruit such as guava, gooseberry, pineapple), to smallholder women who, in many cases, cannot afford to adopt high-cost technologies. It found that women’s self-help groups adopted various methods like home gardens (a form of agroforestry) and crops in orchards to cope with household food and nutrition insecurity. However, women’s initiatives to adopt agroforestry as a safety net for meeting food requirements were overpowered by men’s claims on the land for timber-based agroforestry.23
There is more scope for in-depth and long-term analysis of agroforestry's role in empowering women and supporting their livelihoods.
Future research areas on social impact
1. Long-term assessments in terms of employment generation, livelihood support, environmental indices like water and land conservation, biomass productivity, and its influence on microclimate are required.
2. There is a need for a reliable field database on agroforestry as in the case of agriculture crops where information like the number of trees on the farm, species grown, survival rate, number of trees planted or harvested, the quantity of wood and wood products produced or available, etc. could be recorded at a village level.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Agroforestry plays a vital role in increasing soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation abilities of many trees. Trees manage the nutrient cycle efficiently by capturing nutrients from the deeper layers of the soil. Even those trees that may not fix nitrogen enhance the soil by adding soil organic carbon and recycling and releasing nutrients to farmlands. Generally, deep-rooted tree species have the tendency to reduce competition for nutrients and moisture with crops by extracting deeper layers of the soil.24
A significant literature exists on the ability of agroforestry to influence the soil in various agroforestry systems. For example, the agri-silvihorticultural system in the rainfed region recorded an increase in below-canopy soil organic carbon from 65 to 109.4 percent, and from 28.1 to 62.5 percent under open-canopy after nine years of experimentation. An ongoing study by CAFRI estimates the soil organic carbon in agroforestry systems for 16 states varies from 53.47 to 100.13 Mg C/hectare in about 0-90 cm soil depth.25
Observations from a Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) agroforestry case study in Rajasthan are quite striking, with an increase of nitrogen from GG to 90 percent; a 120-450 percent increase in phosphorus and a 100-150 percent increase in potassium, along with considerable increases in organic carbon compared to a sole crop grown under conventional circumstances.26
Annual nitrogen fixation is observed to increase as plants age. This was noticed in particular for the Alnuscardamom plantations in the eastern Himalaya. Here the nutrient standing stock, uptake and return were higher in the 15-year-old stand than the 5-year-old stand (Singh et al. 2011). Alnus nepalensis, Michelia oblonga, Parkia roxburghii, Pinus kesiya, and Gmelina arboria show great potential as they are observed to increase soil organic carbon, improve soil aggregation, increase moisture in the soil and reduce soil erosion.27
The literature indicates the potential of agroforestry systems (silvipasture, agrisilviculture and agrihorticulture) for water-use efficiency, especially when these systems are integrated into watershed programs, as commonly seen in India.28 Planting trees reduces water run-off by between 48 and 99 percent. Agroforestry-based watershed programs also provide ecosystem benefits, making more water available to the farmers through conservation in the long run.29
Studies cite the ability of agroforestry to use rainwater better than annual cropping systems. For example, crops and trees grown together used water more efficiently between the hedgerows than sole grown trees or crops, as trees made use of the water availability at deeper levels, leaving the crop to use surface water.30
However, more examples are required to assess the tree-crop dynamics of water consumption by various species in different combinations and across AERs. The long-term benefits of agroforestry in watershed programs need more evaluation, along with the ability of the practice to affect local or regional rainfall patterns.
‘The tree products of agroforestry (timber, fuel, fodder) are used as a primary source of energy through fuelwood for cooking or heating, especially in rural areas. Agroforestry is thus vital for the sustenance and livelihood of the population who depend on tree products for basic energy while creating income.
Several papers mention the contribution of the agroforestry sector to meet the fuelwood, bio-fuel and bioenergy demands of the nation.31 In general, agroforestry produces three types of biomass energy — trees, waste and crops. There are a few plants that are grown explicitly as ‘energy crops,” such as hemp and miscanthus. Among the tree species most favourable for providing wood energy are Prosopis juliflora, Leuceana leucocephala and Calliandra calothyrsus, while species with potential as biofuels include Jacropha curcas, Pongamia pinnata, Simarouba, Azadiracta indica and, Madhuca spp. A few agroforestry trees (e.g., Prosopis juliflora) are used to fuel biomass-based power plants, where electricity generation can use crop/plant residues. Even poplar is known to be favorable as a biofuel as it can produce significant biomass in a short period.32
‘The agroforestry sector offers great potential to sequester carbon in its trees (woody mass) and soil. This provides opportunities to (i) mitigate the emissions from the agriculture sector, (i) meet the country’s NDC target, and (iii) transfer carbon credits through market structures.
Significant progress is made on quantifying the carbon sequestration potential from agroforestry systems. Findings suggest that the agroforestry sector has good potential to act as a carbon sink and sequester large amounts of carbon (above and below ground) and enhance soil organic carbon than farming systems without trees. However, their ability to act as a carbon sink varies depending on the tree species, age, location, and climatic factors.33
In 2011, the ICAR-CAFRI initiated research to determine the Carbon Sequestration Potential (CSP) of major agroforestry systems in cultivated areas in different Agro Climatic Zones (ACZs) of India through an integrated approach using geospatial technologies (remote sensing); field survey; and carbon-biomass simulation models (CO2FIX model). CSP estimates developed for 16 states (covering 51 districts), found the CSP of agroforestry to be 0.35 Mg C/hectare/year and the total CSP around 7.230 million tonnes of carbon.34
Significant research in India (and outside India) indicates the key roles of agroforestry in biodiversity conservation.35,36This is primarily through (i) providing habitat for the species that can withstand a certain level of disturbance; (i) maintaining germplasm of sensitive species; (iii) creating a green corridor for species movement, enabling sensitive species to thrive within pockets of green habitats; (iv) reducing rates of conversion of natural habitats to traditional agricultural lands by producing viable goods and services; and v) supporting threatened species or acting as an effective buffer to deforestation, parks, and protected areas.37
By integrating trees into the land which is already farmed, agroforestry creates new ecological niches and supports higher biodiversity in some groups (birds, insects, rodents) compared to monocultures. Usually, these systems support 50-80 percent of the biodiversity found in natural systems.38
A review paper takes a more in-depth perspective to produce evidence that involves species, animals, or crops across states. Agroforestry systems in Karnataka preserved around 952 individual trees belonging to 93 species in just 1.7 hectares of land. While 544 farms in the three southern states (Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu) reported preserving around 269 tree species whereas in Meghalaya, arecanut agroforestry systems conserved 160 species.39 However, there is a dearth of evidence on the animal species in the literature.
The following institutions are involved in the research and promotion of conservation farming; a few were consulted for this research:
Source: Authors' compilation
Note — The stakeholders list is indicative and not exhaustive
State of available research discussing the impact of conservation farming on various outcomes.
|
Evidence type |
Yield |
Income |
Health |
Gender |
Soil & nutrients |
Water |
Energy |
GHG emissions |
Bio-diversity |
|
Journals |
32 |
20 |
3 |
4 |
35 |
11 |
10 |
12 |
17 |
|
Reports |
0 |
6 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Articles/case-studies |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
8 |
0 |
0 |
5 |
0 |
|
Others** |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
8 |
0 |
0 |
5 |
0 |
|
Total |
32 |
26 |
3 |
4 |
46 |
14 |
11 |
20 |
19 |
** Thesis, guidelines, conference papers, etc Source: Authors' compilation
Note — The evidence is from the first 75 results examined in Google Scholar Advanced search and the first 30 results from Google Advanced Search. Only those papers which clearly established the evidence for different indicators were selected.
1 Department of Agriculture, Co-operation and Farmers' Welfare. 2014. National Agroforestry Policy of India. Department of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, New Delhi
2 R.H. Rizvi, AK. Handa, K.B. Sridhar, Anil Kumar, S. Bhaskar, S. K. Chaudhari, A. Arunachalam, Noyal Thomas, S Ashutosh, R. K. Sapra, Girish Pujar, Raj Kumar Singh, Sunil Londhe, Devashree Nayak, Arul Dogra, Rajendra Choudhary, S.K. Dhyani, Javed Rizvi, Tor-Gunnar Vagen, M. Ahmad, R. Prabhu, and Gaurav Dongre. 2020. Mapping Agroforestry and Trees Ourside Forest. Jointly published by the ICAR, Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI), Jhansi and World Agroforestry (ICRAF), South Asia Regional Programme, New Delhi.
3 Bose P. 2015. “India’s drylands agroforestry: a ten-year analysis of gender and social diversity, tenure and climate variability”. Int For Rev 17:85-98. doi: 10.1505/146554815816086435
4 RESET. 2020. Agroforestry and its Benefits. Online article. REST. https://en.reset.org/knowledge/agroforestry-and-itsbenefits. Accessed 12 Oct 2020
5 Dhakal Anup. 2020. Role of agroforestry in nutrient recycling. Blog. http://aanupdhakal.com.np/agroforestry-nutrientrecycling/. Accessed 12 Oct 2020
6 Ram Asha, Dev, Inder, Bhaskar S, and Chaturvedi O.P. 2018. Role of Agroforestry in Current Scenario. Scientific Publishers, Jhansi
7 Rajeshwar Rao, G, M Prabhakar, G Venkatesh, I Srinivas, and K Sammi Reddy. 2018. “Agroforestry Opportunities for Enhancing Resilience to Climate Change in Rainfed Areas.” Hyderabad. http://www.nicra-icar.in/nicrarevised/images/Books/Agroforestry%20Book%2...
8 Department of Agriculture, Co-operation and Farmers' Welfare. 2014. National Agroforestry Policy of India. Department of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, New Delhi
9 Sharma P, Singh MK, Tiwari P, and Verma K. 2017. “Agroforestry systems: Opportunities and challenges in India”. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2017: SP1: 953-957
10 Department of Agriculture, Co-operation and Farmers' Welfare. 2014. National Agroforestry Policy of India. Department of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, New Delhi
11 Ram Asha, Dev, Inder, Bhaskar S, and Chaturvedi O.P. 2018. Role of Agroforestry in Current Scenario. Scientific Publishers, Jhansi
12 Handa A K, Dhyani S.K, and Uma. 2015. “Three decades of agroforestry research in India: Retrospection for way forward”. Agric Res ] 52:1. doi: 10.5958/2395-146x.2015.00028.9
13Sharma P, Singh M.K, Tiwari P, and Verma K. 2017. “Agroforestry systems: Opportunities and challenges in India”. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2017; SP1: 953-957
14 Srinivas, K. n.d. “Bucalyptus Based Agro Forestry Systems for Improving the Productivity of Arable Lands ” Accessed March 12. https://krishi.icar.gov.in/jspuilbitstream/123456789/32963/1/KS3.pdf.
15 Newaj R, Rizvi R.H, and Charurvedi O.P, eral. 2017. A Country Level assessment of Area under Agroforestry and irs Carbon Sequestration Potential. Technical Bulletin 2/2017. ICAR-central agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi, pg 48
16 Handa, A. K., Dev, Inder., Rizvi, R H., Kumar, Naresh., Ram, Asha., Kumar, Dheeraj., Kumar, Anil., Bhaskar, S., Dhyaui, S. K. and Rizvi, Javed (eds). 2019. Successful Agroforestry Models for Different Agro-Ecological Regions in India. Joined published by the Central Agroforestry Research Institute (CAIRI), Jhansi, and the South Asia Regional Programme (based in New Delhi) of World Agroforestry (ICRAF)
17 Sharma P, Singh M.K, Tiwari P, and Verma K. 2017. “Agroforestry systems: Opportunities and challenges in India”. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2017; SP1: 953-957
18 Handa A.K, Toky O.P, and Dhyani S.K, ct al. 2016. “Innovative agroforestry for livelihood security in India”. World Agric 7-16
19 Singh, Vijay Singh, and Pandey, Deep Narayan_ 2011 Multifunctional Agroforestry Systems in India: Science-Based Policy Options. Climate Change and CDM Cell, Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board, Jaipur
20 Handa AK, Toky O.P, and Dhyani S K, er al. 2016. “Innovative agroforestry for livelihood security in India”. World Agric 7-16
21 Sharma P, Singh M.K, Tiwari P, and Verma K. 2017. “Agroforestry systems: Opportunities and challenges in India”. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2017; SP1: 953-957
22 Tirakannanavar S, Navi V, Shet RM et al. 2016. “Sustainable silvi based cropping systems for improving the socioeconomic status of horticulture farmers-a review”. Int | Adv Res Biol Sci 3:99-104
23 Bose P. 2015. “India’s drylands agroforestry: a ten year analysis of gender and social diversity, tenure and climate variability”. Int For Rev 17:85-98. doi: 10.1505/146554815816086435
24 Singh, Vijay Singh, and Pandey, Deep Narayan. 2011. Multifunctional Agroforestry Systems in India: Science-Based Policy Options. Climate Change and CDM Cell, Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board, Jaipur
25 Newaj R, Rizvi R.H, and Chaturvedi O.P, et al. 2017. A Country Level Assessment of Area under Agroforestry and its Carbon Sequestration Potential. Technical Bulletin 2/2017. ICAR-central agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi, pg 48
26 Handa A K, Toky O.P, and Dhyani S.K, et al. 2016. “Innovative agroforestry for livelihood security in India”. World Agric 7-16
27 Handa A.K, Dhyani S.K, and Uma. 2015. “Three decades of agroforestry research in India: Retrospection for way forward”. Agric Res ] 52:1. doi: 10.5958/2395-146x.2015.00028.9
28 Ibid
29 Ibid
30 Singh, Vijay Singh, and Pandey, Deep Narayan. 2011. Multifunctional Agroforestry Systems in India: Science-Based Policy Options. Climate Change and CDM Cell, Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board, Jaipur
31 Newaj R, Rizvi R.H, and Chaturvedi O.P, et al. 2017. A Country Level Assessment of Area under Agroforestry and its Carbon Sequestration Potential. Technical Bulletin 2/2017. ICAR-central agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi, pg 48
32 Handa A.K, Toky O.P, and Dhyani S.K, et al. 2016. “Innovative agroforestry for livelihood security in India”. World Agric 7-16
33 Handa A K, Dhyani S K, and Uma. 2015. “Three decades of agroforestry research in India: Retrospection for way forward”. Agric Res J 52:1. doi: 10.5958/2395-146x.2015.00028.9
34 Newaj R, Rizvi R.H, and Chaturvedi O.P, et al. 2017. A Country Level Assessment of Area under Agroforestry and its Carbon Sequestration Potential. Technical Bulletin 2/2017. ICAR-central agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi, pg 48
35 Phebe M.D.J, and Sherin J. 2017. “Possibilities of diverse rubber-based agroforestry systems for smallholdings in India”. Agroforestry systems 91(3) 515-526. doi: 10.1007/s10457-016-9953-8
36 Ram Asha, Dev, Inder, Bhaskar S, and Chaturvedi O.P. 2018. Role of Agroforestry in Current Scenario. Scientific Publishers, Jhansi
37 Jose S. 2012. “Agroforestry for conserving and enhancing biodiversity”. Agrofor Syst 85:1-8. doi: 10.1007/510457-012- 9517-5
38 Singh, Vijay Singh, and Pandey, Decp Narayan. 2011. Multifunctional Agroforestry Systems in India: Science-Based Policy Options. Climate Change and CDM Cell, Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board, Jaipur
39 Ibid
Suggested citation: Gupta, Niti, Shanal Pradhan, Abhishek Jain, and Nayha Patel. 2021. Sustainable Agriculture in India 2021: What We Know and How to Scale Up. New Delhi: Council on Energy, Environment and Water
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